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An overview of the Science, Special Issues and Coaching of Female swimmers.


By
Wayne Goldsmith

In general there are few major differences in body size and composition between girls and boys until the time of puberty.  
Females (compared to males) are generally and on average:

  • Shorter
  • Lighter
  • More flexible
  • Have less muscle mass
  • Carry more fat
  • Go through puberty earlier
  • Reach final maturity earlier
(Note: Female early developers end their pubertal growth spurt heavier than late developers.)

Coaching implications:

Girls can be trained as physically mature athletes from a younger age. Historically, young female swimmers have competed well in events such as 400, 800 and 1500 metres freestyle and 200 metres breaststroke: events that by their nature demand a high work ethic.


Generalisations between women and men:

•    Women are generally weaker than men (due to lower muscle quantity)
•    But…When comparing the male to the female for the same amount of muscle mass, no differences in strength are noted
•    Trained women have the same cardiac output compared to trained men, although this is achieved with a higher heart rate and lower stroke volume
•    The lower stroke volume for women (as compared to men) is due to a smaller left ventricle and lower blood volume because of the women’s smaller size
•    Women have lower VO2 max values, which can be related to the extra body fat and the lower haemoglobin levels which results in a lower oxygen content in the arterial blood
•    But… Anaerobic threshold is found to be the same in both sexes
•    Females can experience 20-40% increases in strength as a result of resistance training  
•    The increase in muscle mass when compared to strength gains is generally very small in women
•    Women can also experience a 10-40% increase in endurance capacity with aerobic training

Coaching Implication:

Females can train hard and experience significant improvements in strength and endurance.

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE AND THE FEMALE SWIMMER-AN OVERVIEW

Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a decrease in bone mineral content which causes an increase in bone porosity, which will lead to a greater risk of bone fractures (usually beginning to occur in the late 30s).  Inadequate physical activity and oestrogen deficiency are two of the major contributors to osteoporosis.  Unfortunately, it seems that swimming regularly does not assist in the mineral content of the bone, as it is not a weight bearing exercise. Therefore it is important that female swimmers are getting adequate calcium and maintain regular periods (which allows the body to naturally secrete oestrogen).

Amenorrhoea and Oligomenorrhoea

Most cases of amenorrhoea (no period) or oligomenorrhoea (infrequent menstruation) appear to be reversible when reducing the intensity and volume of training and the athlete increases their caloric intake.  Neither the causes nor long-term consequences are fully known, although amenorrhoea has been linked to Osteoporosis in later life.

Many female athletes suffering from amenorrhoea are happy not to have a period.  THIS INCREASES THE RISK OF OSTEOPOROSIS AND IS NOT RECOMMENDED. Having irregular periods or no period at all does not mean that ovulation is not occurring.  Women have become pregnant when experiencing no menstrual (bleeding) phase of their cycle.

Keeping records of an athlete’s Menstrual Cycle is recommended.  It allows an athlete to:
  • Be more knowledgable about her body
  • Be aware of her hormonal status and identify the physical and emotional conditions which may effect her performance
  • Assist the coach in developing or modifying the training program
  • Observe any irregularities in the menstrual cycle which may require medical attention
  • Provide the doctor with factual information if the athlete chooses to manipulate her cycle around performances
Coaching implication:

Having prior knowledge of an athlete’s menstrual cycle, including premenstrual issues and problems during the period allows a strategy to be considered and implemented before a major championship or event occurs.

The menstrual cycle can last between 21 and 35 days (generally about 28 to 32).  There are three phases in the menstrual cycle:
  • Menstrual Phase – 4-6 days (bleeding occurs)
  • Proliferative Phase – 8-12 days (the preparation of the uterus for fertilisation)
  • Secretory Phase – 10-15 days (preparing for pregnancy, secretion of oestrogen and progesterone)

It has been recorded that women have won Olympic Gold medals and set World records during all stages of the menstrual cycle.  There is no general pattern concerning the ability of women to achieve their best performance during any specific phase.  All women are individual in the effect their menstrual cycle has on their training and competitive performance.  Some suffer from pain and feeling bloated and insecure, others feel strong and indestructible.

Coaching Implications:

Know your athlete and the person you are dealing with!

The efficiency of the immune system will fluctuate during the menstrual cycle.  A female athlete is prone to illness (depression of the immune system) directly following menstruation but seems to have a sharp rise in immune cells (stimulation of the immune system) during and post ovulation (Secretory Phase).

Coaching implication:

Try to decrease physical and psychological stress on your female athlete directly after menstruation.

Premenstrual Tension

This is a real problem for many athletes and the symptoms of each female will differ.
There are four categories of PMT:
1.    Anxiety, irritability, nervous tension and mood swings
2.    Weight gain, swelling of the extremities, breast tenderness and abdominal bloating
3.    Headache, cravings, increased appetite, fatigue and dizziness and fainting
4.    Depression, forgetfulness, crying, confusion and insomnia

Regular exercise seems to reduce these symptoms, but there are some strategies to help alleviate PMT problems if they do occur.
  • Avoid refined sugar, salt, red meat and alcohol
  • Eat fish, poultry, whole grains and legumes for protein
  • Avoid all high-fat foods, tea, coffee, chocolate and cola based drinks

Vitamin supplements known to assist some women in the alleviation of PMT symptoms include:

  • Vitamin B6, C and E
  • Evening Primrose oil
  • Multivitamin and mineral supplements
  • Magnesium


Note:  Young women experiencing very painful periods early, often find that they suffer from PMT symptoms as they get older.

Coaching implication:

Try to talk to your athlete about her history of menstruation. Understand that PMT is a real condition and needs to be taken into consideration when dealing with female swimmers.

A common occurrence is an athlete beginning a period after having amenorrhoea or oligomenorrhoea for a time, or reaching menarche (first menstrual cycle) following a heavy build up and taper period.  This will generally lead to bleeding beginning the preceding day or first day of the competition.

Try to have a female manager, mother of a swimmer or senior, female team member travel to competitions with the appropriate supplies.
Remember also, some young girls may need different training while they’re menstruating if they do not wear tampons.

PREGNANCY AND SPORTS PERFORMANCE

If exercising regularly during the first and second trimester (up until the first six months of pregnancy) exercise should be modified but continued during the third trimester.  If not, hypertension may result (beginning of high blood pressure). SWIMMERS SHOULD ALWAYS CONSULT A DOCTOR ABOUT EXERCISING DURING PREGNANCY.

KEY NUTRITION ISSUES FOR THE FEMALE SWIMMER

There are several major nutritional considerations for female swimmers. These include:

IRON: Lack of iron is a major cause of tiredness and lethargy.  The loss of blood (20-80ml per period) every month means that iron levels need to be monitored carefully. The absorption of iron has been shown to be enhanced in the presence of Vitamin C.

CALCIUM: Lack of calcium, especially for females in training, will severely increase the risk of bones becoming brittle (easily broken and with increased risk of stress fractures).  There is also a greater risk of having osteoporosis in later life.  Calcium allows skeletal bone to develop and be repaired. The absorption of Calcium has been shown to be enhanced in the presence of Vitamin D.

Coaching implication:

Educate your female swimmers on the basics of good nutrition.


EATING DISORDERS

Highest risk group is females between 12 and 21, especially athletes because:

  • Pressure to have weight at low levels
  • Weight limit is imposed by the coach, trainer, parent or self
  • The personality type of a typical athlete matches that of the profile for females in the high risk group (competitive, perfectionist, tightly controlled by parent or coach)
  • The nature of the sport


Anorexia Nervosa

  • Refusal to maintain normal weight (based on age and height)
  • Have a distorted body image
  • Intense fear of fatness or gaining weight
  • Amenorrhea


Bulimia Nervosa

  • Recurrent episodes of binge eating
  • Feeling of total lack of control during the binges
  • Purging – self induced vomiting, laxative use, diuretic use
  • Overconcern with body shape and weight


Coaching implication:

Know your swimmers and how to identify warning signs that a problem may be developing.


PSYCHOLOGY OF THE FEMALE ATHLETE


Female athletes may experience a role conflict between wanting to be an athlete to compete and perform and being expected to be a female.  Traditionally athletic traits are seen as being masculine and therefore undesirable in a “lady”, i.e.

COMPETITIVE, AMBITIOUS, SELF-CONFIDENT AND AGGRESSIVE
V
CO-OPERATIVE, PASSIVE, SUBORDINATE, NURTURING AND COMPASSIONATE

Coaches need good listening skills when dealing with females.  A common fear with young female athletes is peer approval.  This is especially the case at school, where the athlete is socialising with others not involved in sport or swimming.

Coaching implication:

Coaches must try to allow girls or women to be feminine if that is their wish, while encouraging them to have the characteristics of an athlete.

Some coaches believe that some female swimmers show a tendency to be weak in times of stress and fold or collapse easily.  This characteristic is due mainly to low self-esteem, low self-confidence or little self-belief.  A strategy to enhance the possibility of being able to perform under pressure is to set small, achievable goals during training and prove that the athlete can achieve these.  Another way of dealing with this problem is to focus on the skills needed in the performance, not the outcome (ie. The start, turn and pacing of the race, not the time or the place).

Having said all that, some female swimmers enjoy being challenged and will only show their true potential when in a pressure situation.  

Coaching implication:

Know your athlete as a person and learn about their reactions in all pressure situations, not only as a swimmer and racer.

SUMMARY

  • Females are physiologically, quite differently to males.
  • Females are in a constant state of change of their physiological status due to the monthly menstrual cycle.
  • Females have certain special needs in their nutrition
  • Traditionally, females have been expected to look a certain way, which may be detrimental to their physical health and eating habits.
  • Also, females have been expected to act in a certain way, which may not be conducive to great athletic performance.
  • Females, especially young females, are very much driven by peer group thoughts and actions.
  • Females often need someone with good listening skills, but they also need a COACH.


REFERENCES

Burke, L, (1992), The Complete Guide to Food for Sports Performance: Peak Nutrition for Your Sport, Allen and Unwin, Sydney.

Carbon, R J (1992), “The Female Athlete”, (Chapter 23) In. “Textbook of Science and Medicine in Sport”, Eds. J Bloomfield, P A Fricker,  K.D. Fitch, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Melbourne, Australia.

Coakley, J (1990), “Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies, Fourth Edition”, Chapter 9, “Gender Relations: are the barriers for girls and women gone?, Times Mirror/ Mosby, St Louis.

Daly, J. and Ey, W. (1996), Hormones and Female Athletic Performance, Women’s Sport Foundation of W.A. Inc, Western Australia.

McDonald, R (1996), “Sports Medicine”, in De Castella, R and Clews, W Eds. “Smart Sport”.  RWM Publishing Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Australia.

McDonald, R (1998), Sports Physician, Australian Olympic Team / Australian Institute of Sport, Personal Communication.

Plaisted, V (1991), “The Psychology of the Female Athlete”, Sports Coach, Vol 14, No 4: pp 29-33.

Pyne, D. (1998), Australian Institute of Sport Exercise Physiologist, Personal Communication.

Stager, J.M., Emery, M, Tanner, D.A.,  Edwards, J.E., Wigglesworth, J. (1997), “On the Age of Elite US Women Swimmers”,   in The Journal of Swimming Research, Vol 12 (Fall 1997), pp 27-34, American Swimming Coaches Association, Florida, USA.

Sweetenham, B (1999), Personal Communication.

Wilmore, Jack H., Costill, David L. (1994) Physiology of Sport and Exercise: (Chapter 19), “Gender Issues and the Female Athlete”.  Human Kinetics, Illinios, USA.

Woodman, L., Cameron, D. and Schembri G. (1990), (Eds.), Beginning Coaching: Level I Coaching Manual, Australian Coaching Council, Canberra.

Special thanks to Dr Warren McDonald, Olympic team and Australian Institute of Sport Physician for his personal correspondence and assistance in the preparation of this paper. The input from Sue Robson of the Southern Cross University Lismore, NSW, was invaluable in putting this together. Also thanks to Australian Institute of Sport recovery consultant Angela Calder and A.I.S. and National Swim Team Physiologist, Dr David Pyne for their time and expertise.

Letter from a young swimmer:

Dear A.S.C.T.A.,

I am 13 years old and swim 6 times a week. I want to know, does having a period effect my swimming?

Yours sincerely,

Kylie Watson

 
Dear Kylie,

Thanks for your letter.
The short answer is yes it can, but not necessarily in a negative way!
The issue of menstrual cycle and performance is one that has been studied and discussed a great deal in recent years.
Female swimmers respond differently to their periods. Some feel slow, lethargic and irritable. Others feel strong, aggressive and fast. One legendary Australian female swimmer felt she raced better during her period and broke a heap of records during that phase of her menstrual cycle.
Olympic team and A.I.S. sports physician Dr Warren McDonald writes:

“The normal cycle lasts 28 days, although this can be from 21 to 35 days in any individual. Menstruation (bleeding) lasts between 4 to 6 days. The menstrual cycle usually commences at age 12 to 14.
In some women who exercise at a high intensity for a long period of time, changes can occur to this cycle. They include:

Delay in the age at which menstruation commences
Lighter bleeding and fewer days of bleeding
A longer cycle-in some women - it may disappear completely
(Remember that these are only guidelines. Please see a doctor and a gynaecologist if you have any problems).

From a practical standpoint, you need to be able to communicate with your coach if you are having any problems with your menstrual cycle. This can be a little difficult if your coach is male, as not all male coaches have an in-depth knowledge of the issue. There are several strategies that may help you in this regard:

1.    Talk with your coach about your menstrual cycle and let him / her know if you are having problems and when you are due to have your period. Older swimmers may be able to discuss the issue openly with their coaches. Younger swimmers may prefer to ask mum to make an appointment with the coach and accompany her to the meeting.
2.    If keeping a training diary, you may consider marking the day your period starts with a “P” in the top left corner of the page. Tell your coach what the “P” means. When your coach reads your diary, he / she is then aware of when your period starts and finishes.

A proactive strategy that works well is to ask your coach and club to organise a special information night just for the females at the club. All the swimmers from 10 years of age and up are invited to attend the session (with parental consent for the younger swimmers of course) which should include:  

A talk from a local doctor or gynaecologist covering the facts about the menstrual cycle
A talk from a local sportswoman (not necessarily a swimmer) who has been successful and is respected by the swimmers.  She can talk about her own experiences and how she has dealt with issue during training and competition.

The bottom line is, YOU need to know how your menstrual cycle effects you. Keep a diary for three months and note in the diary when your period starts, how long it goes for, how you felt in training during your period, how you felt leading up to the start of your period, did you experience pain, if you did experience pain what you did to overcome it and so on. This is great way for you to get to know your own body and how it works. It also is very useful if problems occur and you need to be able to talk to your doctor about it.

It doesn’t make sense to train hard for months and months and go to a swim meet not knowing how your body will respond if you get a period during the competition.

Another issue is that of irregular periods. When some female swimmers train hard, the frequency of periods may change. Some athletes may go many months without having a period, although this is far more common in impact sports such as running, triathlon, basketball and netball.

Dr McDonald says: “As many athletes reduce their training before major competition (taper), it is not uncommon for those who have not had a period for some months to suddenly menstruate just prior to or during competition. This can be frustrating and embarrassing. Women should consult their doctor if their cycle becomes irregular or absent”.

So thanks Kylie for giving us the opportunity to raise some issues on this very important subject. Good luck with your swimming.


Wayne Goldsmith

(My thanks to Dr Warren McDonald for his help in replying to Kylie)